“I do not think there was ever a more wicked war than that waged by the United States on Mexico… it was on our part most unjust,” commented Ulysses S. Grant. The Mexican American War can be considered one the America’s most embarrassing moments. America had acted very hostile against a weaker Mexico. The United States government used bully tactics to get the land that they wanted. When that did not work America resorted to force. The Mexican American War was the first war of aggression by the newly formed country.Not only was land gained during the Mexican American War, leaders were also forged in the heat of the battle. Many of the young officers would reappear a decade later in the Civil War. Such men were Ulysses S. Grant, Thomas J. Jackson, and Robert E. Lee. These men became the most memorable leaders of the Civil war. One question that merits exploration is whether these men were born leaders or whether they learned their leadership abilities in battle. This essay argues that these men came to Mexico with the ability to lead; in Mexico they learned how to lead.
The definition of military leadership is “. . .a process by which a soldier influences others to accomplish the mission.” In other words, a person does not have to be an officer to be a leader. In most cases, however, it is the officers who are perceived as being the “leaders.” The officers are the people giving the orders to direct, or lead, their men. However, “. . .most commanders are not generals; they are lieutenant colonels and colonels in charge of battalions and brigades, depots and hospitals, and training centers.” To be a leader, a person must have a relationship with those that are being led.
Leadership styles are different for every leader. A leader must find a leadership style that is most comfortable for them and one that is appropriate for the situation. A leader must have the ability to change their leadership styles mid-stream since situations can change. A leadership style that is appropriate for one situation may not be appropriate for another. Expressing ones self well is essential to being a good leader. Those whom you lead must know what you precisely want them to accomplish. For if your orders are ambiguous in nature, how can a leader expect those they lead to follow?
The Mexican American War forged some of the greatest leaders that America has ever seen. For many of these men it was their baptism of fire. There are three names that stand out above the rest. Those are Ulysses S. Grant, Thomas J. Jackson, and Robert E. Lee. All three of these men were junior officers during this war. Each one had a different job. Grant was a regimental quartermaster, Jackson was in the artillery, and Lee was an engineer who was in charge of placing cannons. All three of these men had very different experiences, yet they all became great leaders.
Ulysses S. Grant entered West Point in 1839 and graduated four years later. Grant never really had an interest in going into the military, but his father wanted him to have an education but could not afford it. West Point was free and guaranteed Grant a job upon graduating. At West Point, Grant was not the best student. In fact, when he graduated he was ranked twenty-first out of a class of thirty-nine. Upon graduating, Grant had hoped to be assigned to the cavalry. Ever since he was a young boy he rode horses with a skill like no other. Instead of being assigned to a cavalry unit he was assigned to the Fourth infantry as a second lieutenant.
The Fourth infantry was under the command of Zachary Taylor. In Taylor’s army, Grant was made the regimental quartermaster. His job was to conduct the wagon train, pack up and move the tents, blankets, and pots. Grant was also in charge of issuing supplies. When Grant requested to be transferred, his regimental commander would not allow him. For the time being he stayed with General Taylor’s army.
The battle of Monterrey occurred in late September 1846. Zachary Taylor was having the city bombarded when Sam Grant decided to see the artillery in action. He had been ordered to stay back, but this was too good of an opportunity for him to miss. Grant was watching the artillery when the orders came down from Taylor to attack. Since Grant was there he decided to go on the charge. He later used the statement, “lacking the moral courage to return to camp where I had been ordered to stay,” to explain the reason why he disobeyed orders and took part in the charge.
The attacking army ended up in the middle of the city. At this point, Taylor’s army was pinned down and they began to run out of ammunition. An officer was asking for a volunteer to go back and inform Taylor of their situation and to bring more supplies. Grant volunteered and used his equestrian skills to ride back to camp. Grant had to ride with one foot in the stirrup while he held on tight to the horse’s neck because there were Mexican riflemen firing at him. He was using the horse as a shield. Ulysses S. Grant was successful in his mission and Taylor’s troops took the city.
Thomas J. Jackson graduated from West Point in 1846. Jackson received his commission as a lieutenant and left for Mexico on August 19, 1846. Company K of the first Artillery would be Jackson's new home. He was now under the command of Captain Francis Taylor. Captain Taylor was a veteran of the army and had graduated from West Point in 1825. Conscientious and serious were two words that were often used to describe Captain Taylor. Many, including Jackson, admired his devotion to duty. Four guns, seventy-eight men, and eighty horses made up the fighting force that Jackson could now call his own.
The day Company K reached Point Isabel, the Mexican forces at Monterrey surrendered to the Americans. General Taylor had been talked into an eight-week armistice. Many believed that the Mexican’s were tired of fighting and ready to give up. This dismayed Thomas Jackson very much since he wanted to feel the excitement of battle for himself.
Company K got onto steamboats and began their journeys upriver. They reached Camargo, the final staging area, on October 5. Camargo was a town on the Mexican side of the Rio Grande. Captain Taylor and Jackson now waited for their orders to move their battery of siege guns. Company K began to move southwestward toward Monterrey. Captain Taylor and his men finally reached Monterrey on November 24. At Monterrey, Captain Taylor’s party met up with the rest of Company K. On November 29, Jackson along with Company K, started out on a new offensive with Zachary Taylor leading the way.
Taylor’s army headed west for about fifty miles until they reached Saltillo. Saltillo guarded the main pass through the Sierra Madres Mountains. When the Americans arrived there they found it abandoned of all life. Jackson and the rest of company K set up camp. While encamped, news of the re-election of Santa Anna as President became known. The soldiers understood that the war with Mexico would not end soon.
As 1846 slowly rolled over into 1847, Taylor’s army was still inactive. Zachary Taylor’s army was still some 600 miles from Mexico City. It was at this point that Winfield Scott announced his intentions of fighting in Mexico. General Scott had devised a plan to take Mexico City. He knew that it would take time and sieges would have to be laid down upon towns and cities. General Scott went through the White House to get approval on his plan. Scott’s strategy was that of Hernando Cortez, who had conquered Mexico three hundred years earlier. Scott would take the national road, which would lead him straight to Mexico City. The journey would be 260 miles. President Polk did not like Scott, so he urged Taylor to make a movement on Mexico City. Taylor responded to Polk by saying that it would be too difficult to march directly on Mexico City from his current position. With this response, Polk ordered Taylor to stay where he was and gave Scott the go ahead on his plan.
The campaign for Mexico City would require many troops. Scott did not want all volunteers for his army. He requested that he received regular army troops. Scott said he needed the seasoned soldiers for the intricate movements that his plan called for. He also asked for as many West Pointers as possible. Scott believed that West Point graduates were more talented and skillful than the regular officers were. It was agreed that he would take 5,000 volunteers from Zachary Taylor’s army. This would enable Scott to start out on his mission sooner since it would take time to raise 5,000 fresh recruits. Part of the 5,000 regular army troops came from the Fourth infantry, Grant’s unit.
A young Captain was requested by General Scott to be on his staff in January of 1847. This young Captain was Robert E. Lee. Lee had entered West Point in the summer of 1825 and graduated four years later at the top of his class. Upon graduating from West Point, Lee was commissioned to the Corps of Engineers. Scott was preparing to attack Vera Cruz and he needed the expertise of an engineer. As an engineer, it was Lee’s job to select the positioning for the artillery.
Vera Cruz was in a location that could be easily defended from attackers. It was on the seaward side of a sandy plain. Around it were a series of sand hills; some reaching the height of three hundred feet. On the port side of Vera Cruz was the fortress of San Juan de Ulúa. One hundred thirty-five guns were mounted in this fortress. Furthermore, thirty-six of them were modern shell guns. A garrison of 1,030 was stationed within the fort. As with many of the other Mexican troops, there was a shortage of powder and supplies.
American batteries opened up on San Juan de Ulúa as a diversion. This diversion was used to start the planned encirclement of Vera Cruz. Scott called together his cabinet while the infantry completed the encirclement. The cabinet was to discuss the best plans for taking San Juan de Ulúa and Vera Cruz. Siege tactics were decided to be the best idea. At the moment, Scott had enough guns to take Vera Cruz, but not enough for San Juan de Ulúa. Scott had prearranged to have the navy support the bombardment of Vera Cruz. Since it would take a while to build the batteries around Vera Cruz, Scott would use the naval guns to begin the bombardment on the Mexicans.
General Scott asked for the surrender of Vera Cruz on March 22. The man in charge of the Mexican forces, General Morales, rejected Scott’s proposal. United States mortars began to be fired at the town. The Americans were still working frantically to get the batteries operational. Robert E. Lee was directing the placement of the guns. On the night of March 23-24, the guns were finally in place. Their destructive power was seen the following day when they opened up on the town. Day after day of shelling caused the Mexicans to lose a lot of morale.
Even though the morale was low in the Mexican army, they still put up a fight against the invading force. There was news that Santa Anna was marching towards the shore with two thousand men to relieve the siege. This caused Scott to rearrange some of his men. There was a skirmish between American and Mexican forces. The United States drove the Mexicans back nearly six miles from their entrenchments. During the skirmish the United States lost two men and nine were wounded. For the Mexicans, it was only a matter of time before the Americans overpowered them.
Mexicans opened up negotiations for surrender on March 26. America’s terms were that Mexico surrenders all their materials of war and that Ulúa was included in the surrender. Mexico was allowed to march their garrison out and withdraw to Orizaba or Jalapa. The bloody siege was now over. The bombardment only lasted four days, but in those four days the American batteries fired 6,700 shot and shell. Added to this were the 1,800 rounds that were fired by the Navy. The United States lost thirteen men and fifty-five were wounded. For the United States, this was a big victory. This was Scott’s first move in his plan to take Mexico City. The victory helped to put confidence in Scott’s newly formed army.
Jackson’s unit had been involved during the siege at Vera Cruz. He directed a unit of artillery that was involved in the short-range bombardment. For his “. . . gallant and meritorious conduct at the siege of Vera Cruz,” Jackson was promoted to first Lieutenant. Jackson learned some important lessons during the long siege. He came to the realization that he would do all that he could to avoid siege warfare. Jackson also learned that it was better to be the attacker than the defender, even if you are outnumbered. Jackson would carry these lessons with him for the rest of his life.
Following Vera Cruz, Jackson’s unit was to be stationed at Jalapa. Jackson did not come to Mexico to miss out on the action. He would do everything that he could to get back with the main army. Jackson heard that there was an opening in Captain John B. Magruder’s battery. This excited Jackson very much since he knew that Magruder was always involved in the action. The fact that Magruder had a bad temper did not bother Jackson. He applied to transfer and his request was granted. He began his journey to catch up with Scott’s army.
Victory at Vera Cruz now enabled the American forces to move inland toward Mexico City. Along the way there was a battle at Cerro Gordo. To the north of Cerro Gordo laid a steep face known as El Telégrafo. El Telégrafo rose to a height of five or six hundred feet. Santa Anna was overconfident about his army’s ability to defend the town. It was Robert E. Lee who discovered a path that would flank the Mexican position on the left side. The path would be cleared for infantry and later cleared more so that artillery could pass through.
Americans charged El Telégrafo, but were pinned down by Mexican fire before reaching the top. Santa Anna had previously assumed that El Telégrafo was the American objective; he had strengthened his forces there and prepared earthworks. The Americans had an all out attack and were able to take the hill. It was then that Captain John B. Magruder took charge of the Mexican guns and began to fire at the fleeing Mexicans. The battle of Cerro Gordo lasted only three hours. The Mexican army had been destroyed for the moment. The United States lost sixty-three men and three hundred sixty-eight were wounded. Americans were now a step closer to their final objective, Mexico City.
Guerilla activities began to increase following the defeat of Cerro Gordo. The Mexicans had a long history of using unconventional warfare since they were usually weaker than their attackers. Scott reacted to the increasing guerilla activity by holding the alcalde nearest the scene of guerilla attacks accountable. The United States would expect the culprits to be turned over to the American authorities. If the culprits were not turned over, the alcalde would be fined three hundred dollars on their personal property. Scott’s army could not let guerillas stop them from reaching their goal of Mexico City; the American Army kept marching.
Scott ordered the army to move toward the southern side of Lake Chalco on August 15. The Army was approximately nine miles south of Mexico City. Captain Lee and Lieutenant Beauregard were assigned to find a path through a lava field known as Pedrega. Santa Anna believed that it was impossible to pass through the lava. Lee proved him wrong. Lee and Beauregard found a pass that could be cleared so that artillery could be transported.
During the morning of the nineteenth, Lee supervised five hundred men while they were carving a path through the lava. Around midday General Gabriel Valencia ordered his artillery opened up on the Americans. This halted work until the guns could be silenced. Captain Magruder’s field battery, which included Jackson, was called up to give support. The American artillery was too light to do much damage. The Mexicans drove the American artillery back.
The American decided if they wanted to make a road through Pedrega, they had to attack. Scott gave orders for his men to attack. Valencia’s forces got turned around and destroyed. When the fighting ceased, Valencia’s forces did not exist. Seven hundred Mexicans died and eight hundred forty-three surrendered. Of those that surrendered, there were four generals. The United States acquired seven hundred pack mules, twenty-two artillery pieces, and a lot of arms and munitions. The victory here enabled the Americans to keep moving deeper into Mexico.
A battle that consisted of two parts was fought on August 29, 1847. The battles of Contreras and Churubusco were fought within a few hours of each other. The American army, led by Persifor Smith, had Valencia’s army surrounded on three sides. Smith wanted to make sure that Scott was informed of his situation. He asked for a volunteer to make the dangerous trip back to Scott’s location. Robert E. Lee volunteered for the task. All the while, the Mexicans were waiting for reinforcements from Santa Anna. Mexican morale decreased when they realized that Santa Anna was not going to reinforce them. It was now that the Americans struck. The attack only lasted seventeen minutes but was very successful. Valencia’s men broke ranks and ran in all directions. Even though Santa Anna could see this from his position, he did nothing to help.
Thomas Jackson’s artillery division was active during the battle Contreras. Jackson’s commander was Lieutenant John Preston Johnston. During the battle, Johnston was mortally wounded. When this occurred, Jackson assumed command of the guns. Even though Jackson was pinned down by Mexican fire, he still did his best to serve his country. Jackson was beginning to show his ability to lead men. He had been placed in a hostile situation and he did not break. Many men would just run if their commanding officer were killed or wounded. Jackson stayed to give artillery support to the rest of the American army.
Three independent actions made up the battle of Churubusco. The first action was the attack of the Churubusco Bridge by Worth and Pillow. There was the attack on the Convent by Twiggs, and the last action was the turning movement to Portales by Shields and Pierce. Scott had committed all of his forces during the course of this battle. During the beginning of the battle, some of the American divisions were getting into trouble. Scott had to take reserves from fighting divisions to keep the hope for victory alive.
The United States would take the day and Santa Anna’s army was devastated. Santa Anna’s figures for the day are estimated at four thousand dead or wounded. Eight of Santa Anna generals were captured along with three thousand others soldiers. Although this was a big victory for Scott’s Army, he lost 1,053 men of which 139 of them were killed. The battles of Contreras and Churubusco set the stage for the invasion of Mexico City.
Mexico City was in chaos after the news of the two defeats reached them. Santa Anna began to try and stall for time by implying that he wanted peace. Santa Anna told Scott not to advance since it could cause the Mexican government to collapse. Scott was told that if the government collapsed, then it would be impossible to negotiate for peace. General Scott took the bait and sent a message back to Santa Anna telling him that he would like to open up peace negotiations. The armistice was agreed upon and signed on August 24. The terms of the armistice were as follows: hostilities were to cease, neither the Mexicans or Americans were to strengthen their positions, prisoners were to be exchanged, and the United States could gather supplies from the city. Furthermore, either the Mexicans or Americans could terminate the armistice at any time with a forty-eight hour notice. The treaty gave Santa Anna time to catch his breath.
While the army was picking up supplies in Mexico City, their train was attacked and driven back. Although Santa Anna apologized for the incident involving the attack, Scott was furious. The negotiations ended and on September 6 the armistice ended. Scott began to prepare to take Mexico City by force. Scott moved his troops to Tacubaya, which gave the Americans an area of the capital that could be easily assaulted. Scott’s engineers reported two strong holds that would have to be taken care of before Mexico City could be taken. These strongholds were the castles of Chapultepec and Molino del Rey.
Scott decided to attack Molino del Rey first. Molino del Rey was thought to be currently manufacturing the weapons that were going to be used to defend the city. The battle that occurred at Molino del Rey was one of the bloodiest of the war. The United States assaulted the castle on September 8, 1847. Scott sent a diversionary force towards Mexico City to draw some of Santa Anna’s men away from the castle. The first charge the Americans made failed and they had to fall back and regroup. The United States kept attacking until they came out victorious. It was later discovered that there was no real objective in taking the castle. America suffered over seven hundred casualties for a few cannons in the castle. Now that Molino del Rey was captured, Scott turned his focus to his next objective, Chapultepec.
Major General Bravo was the commanding officer in the Chapultepec. Supplies were low and he did not have enough men to sufficiently defend the castle. It was estimated that Major General Bravo would need at least two thousand men to defend the castle; however, he only had 832 infantry and some artillerymen. The castle was an obstacle standing the way of the United States occupation of Mexico City. If Scott wanted to take Mexico City, he would first have to take Chapultepec.
At daybreak, on September 13, the American forces started the assault on Chapultepec. The American batteries opened up on the castle to try and weaken the forces inside. It was Lieutenant Colonel Robert E. Lee, with the assistance of Lieutenant George B. McClellan, who decided where the cannons should be placed. When the artillery stopped at eight, it signaled that the time had come for the infantry to attack. The 11th and 14th Infantry, commanded by Colonel William G. Trousdale, led the assault. Thomas Jackson was there with his artillery to give support to the attacking forces.
While Jackson was moving into position to give support to Trousdale’s men, his guns got stuck in a ditch. The Mexican riflemen keyed in on him and began to fire. Nearly all of his horses in his battery were either killed or wounded. Jackson’s battery was completely pinned down by the Mexican fire. Many of the men under him wanted to retreat, but not Jackson. He had been sent to do a job and no Mexican was going to stop him. Jackson lifted one of the guns out of the ditch, but could not get it any further. Jackson cried out to his men, “There is no danger.” At this precise moment, a cannonball passed right between his legs. Jackson screamed out, “See! I am not hit.” Jackson’s men began to rally behind there crazy but inspirational leader.
General Worth sent orders to Jackson to abandon the artillery. Jackson refused because he said that it would be too dangerous. Jackson sent a message to General Worth saying that if he would give Jackson fifty veterans they would try and take the Mexican position by force. John Magruder came to help Jackson wheel the gun into place. Jackson’s men rallied and the Mexican position was overpowered and captured. Jackson showed that he was fearless in the face of the enemy. Thomas J. Jackson proved that he could maintain his composure while still under fire. Jackson had learned how to lead.
When the American soldiers reached the castle walls, ladders were put up so the walls could be scaled. Captain Moses Barnard placed the Voltigeur flag on the parapet, causing the American momentum to increase drastically. Private William A. Gray found the powder train that led to the mines in the castle and disconnected it. American soldiers quickly turned the castle’s guns onto the fleeing Mexicans. General Bravo had no choice but to surrender the castle. He surrendered to Lieutenant Charles B. Brower shortly before 9:30 a.m. Old Glory was raised high above the castle following the surrender.
Some of the fleeing Mexicans took cover behind a stonewall. The Americans were having a hard time dislodging these soldiers. Grant saw that there was a church that overlooked the area the Mexicans were holding. The San Cosmé church would be a perfect place to mount a mountain howitzer. Grant assembled the gun on the belfrey and opened fired on the Mexicans. The Mexicans were driven back from the wall. Lieutenant John Pemberton complimented Grant on his positioning of the howitzer. Grant showed his skill of working with what you have to accomplish a goal. His ability to lead became evident, just as with Jackson.
America troops were entering the capital by nightfall. Mexico City was now under the occupation of the United States. The Mexican government urged Santa Anna to leave the city and he agreed. He withdrew to Guadalupe Hidalgo. The American flag was raised over the National Palace while Mexicans and American looked on. General Scott rode through the crowds complimenting his men on a job well done. With an army of less than 11,000 men, General Scott and the American forces, had overcome an army of 30,000 men defending their own capital.
For many the war was over. The rest of the war mainly consisted of battles between the American forces and guerillas. The Treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgo was not signed until February 2, 1848; however, for Ulysses S. Grant, Thomas J. Jackson, and Robert E. Lee, the fighting was over. Grant’s regiment, the 4th, stayed in Mexico until the Treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgo was signed. Grant’s duties as quartermaster were to buy materials and find people who could sew to make regulation uniforms. While in Mexico Grant receive a promotion to first lieutenant. When Grant returned home, he married his long time girlfriend, Julia Dent.
Thomas J. Jackson received brevets more than any other soldier during the Mexican American War. Jackson was made a first Lieutenant after Vera Cruz, Captain after Contreras and Churubusco, and Major after Chapultepec. Jackson stayed in Mexico until the treaty was signed. He was part of the policing force that patrolled Mexico City. It is said that Jackson enjoyed his stay in Mexico. He took the time to learn Spanish so that he could communicate with the locals. Although Jackson had struggled through West Point, he now had found a home in the military.
Robert E. Lee stayed in Mexico for an additional eight months. He spent his time making maps and conducting reconnaissance. When Robert E. Lee arrived in Mexico, it was already known that he was an able junior officer, but when he returned home he was a hero. Robert E. Lee showed that he was an able officer and was rewarded by being made a colonel by the war’s end.
Grant, Jackson, and Lee had proven themselves capable leaders during the Mexican American War. They demonstrated qualities that are necessary to make a good leader. Good decisions were made in the heat of the battle. There were no irrational thoughts that could cause a potentially hazardous situation for the troops in which they were commanding. Many of the decisions made by these men were the turning points in battles. It is very important for a leader to remain calm and cool while under pressure. All three of these men passed this first test for being a leader.
Leading by example was a tactic used by these men to get the job done. These men learned the important lesson that leaders cannot just order people to do something. How can a leader expect someone else to do a job that he is unwilling to do himself? Leading by example helps to build a cohesive unit among the soldiers. A leader will receive much more respect if he is willing to go into battle with his men knowing that there is a chance that he may die.
The Mexican American War provided these young officers with opportunity to lead men. The older officers relied heavily on the opinions of their junior officers. Grant,as his regiment’s quartermaster, learned organization skills that would carry with him for the rest of his life. Jackson was able to make a lot of decisions on his own during the war. Robert E. Lee learned a lot about strategy by having to place cannons for sieges and battles. He also had to come up with ways to transport the weaponry in horrible conditions. Although these men were in different parts of the same army, they all came away with experiences that would help them in their struggles later on in life.
Ulysses S. Grant, Thomas J. Jackson, and Robert E. Lee showed that they had what it takes to be successful leaders. They learned leadership skills that would be used time and time again. The Mexican American War enabled these men to try out different leadership styles that best suited them. Grant, Jackson, and Lee were forged in battle and were now ready to take on the responsibility of leadership. Many people have a tendency to overlook the Mexican American War and to move right on to the Civil War. Many historians believe that the reason that this war is overlooked is that there is still an embarrassment about the way the United States handled the situation. People need to understand that many of the leaders they love so much that fought during the Civil War learned how to be leaders during the Mexican American War.
All people have the capability of being a leader, whether it means leading your own life or whether it means leading a country. Leadership is an ability that is inside of all people; however, some persons have not found a way to tap into it. It is true that the Grants, Jacksons, and Lees are not born everyday, but everyday people are born who have the same qualities. People are not born great; through their experiences they become great. The Mexican American War enabled these men to start their journey to greatness. Their greatness would reappear a decade later during the Civil War when many of the Mexican American War veterans would meet again on the battlefield. The only difference was that they were not fighting the Mexicans, they were fighting each other.